Solar Energy for Homes Gets Popularity

BCC Research, Wellesley, Massachusetts based firm, announced that solar-thermal technologies for home appliances increased popularity. Using solar power to heat water and air will rapid growth in the next period.
BCC Research announced results: “Over the period from 2009 through 2014, BCC predicts that the global market for water–heating ST residential and commercial technologies will grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 20%, from $7.9 billion to nearly $19.6 billion. The global market for air–heating ST residential and commercial technologies will also indicate growth, although projected growth through 2014 will be more modest as compared to water–heating technologies. The air–heating ST market will grow from $62.5 million in 2009 to approximately $91.5 million in 2014, for a CAGR of 7.9%.”
What makes the popularity?
Home installations of solar-thermal technologies are increasingly popular because water heating, heating and cooling the homes are the largest consumer of energy. Solar-thermal water and air heating reduces energy costs and environmental impact, making solar power a viable source of heat for either air or water. Thus, Solar heating systems can significantly reduce electricity consumption.

Solar Water Heating and Air Conditioning

Solar water heaters for homes also known as solar domestic hot water systems are a low cost way to generate hot water or/and air. The energy they use sunshine is free. In many climates, a solar hot water system can provide up to 85% of “homemade” hot water energy.
Solar water heating systems include two main components: storage tanks and solar collectors. There are two types of solar water heating systems for homes: active, which have circulating pumps, controls and following equipment, and passive, which have a tank for the heated water and a solar collector integrated in one. Passive solar water heating systems are typically less expensive and and low efficient than active systems. Passive heaters can be more reliable and may last longer also. There are a lot of different types and constructions of both, which depend of producer and capacity.
There are two basic types of active solar water heating systems:
1.direct circulation systems, where pumps circulate water through the collectors and then conduct into the homes. Indirect circulation systems use heat-transfer fluid as a energy carrier that circulate through the collectors and a heat exchanger. This heats the water that then can be used.
2.Passive systems are based on two types: Integrated passive systems collector storage tank is one unit and Thermosyphon systems where water flows through the system when warm water rises as cooler water sinks due to density difference.
Home heating by solar energy systems is expensive and not economically viable yet. However air heating require much more energy then water but air cooling systems are wide used. Home air conditioning can be done through
passive solar where thermal energy is not used directly to create a cold environment or drive any direct cooling processes. Instead, passive solar systems aims at slowing the heating of a house and improve the removal of heat.
solar thermal energy conversion between warm air and cold water is a dual system that cools the ais and uses its heat to heat the water. It does not mean water heating will be completely off the power grid. It does make it much easier to conserve energy.
photovoltaic conversion can provide the power for any type of electrically powered cooling be it conventional compressor - based or adsorption-absorption system based

How much Solar Energy Systems for Home Cost?

Annual operating and maintenance cost of Solar water Heating system is about 50$. Conventional heater utility cost is about 500$. Take in consider that solar panels for homes, cost in 200$-4000$ (depends on type and capacity) on Amazon.com, it is understandable people's decision to heat or cool their home utility using solar energy.
Photo:

http://www.flickr.com/photos/eastpole/ / CC BY-NC-ND 2.0

Biodiesel Process Improvement by Amberlyst BD20 Catalyst

Current biodiesel manufacture trough alkali-catalyzed transesterification is highly limited by availability of refined oil feed stocks. There are used eatable crops consisting of long-chain alkyl (methyl, propyl or ethyl) esters such as sunflower and rapeseed, soybean and palm oils.
While non-refined feed stocks, such as crude oil, rendered animal fat, and yellow/ brown greases, are inexpensive and readily available for biodiesel production, their high free fatty acids (FFA) content limits their use since the acids unfavorably react with the base catalysts employed.
BayFAME, new biodiesel process technology of free fatty acids (FFA) transesterification based on the Dow Amberlyst BD20 catalyst that developed by “Bayer Technology Services GmbH” would be more visible and probably wide applied in biodiesel production process. Dow Water & Process Solutions, a business unit of The Dow Chemical Co., and Bayer Technology Services GmbH, announced a licensing agreement for the worldwide marketing of BayFAME technology.
BayFAME technology, based on the Dow Amberlyst BD20 catalyst is an opportunity to reduce biodiesel process costs and environmental impact by applying modern catalyst technology, which will allow increased use of low-cost high-FFA feedstock, and reduce water and energy requirement. Esterification by sulfuric acid catalyst can be done but then the acid must be neutralized and disposed of with concurrent environmental and corrosion related problems. The highest FFA conversion (45.7%) into FAME as a step in biodiesel process was obtained over polymer catalyst AmberlystTM 15.

What is Amberlyst BD20?

Dr. Susanne Mueller, head of Engineering Biomass Conversion Bayer Technology Services said “With BayFAME, the new clean FFA-esterification technology developed by Bayer Technology Services based on the Dow Amberlyst BD20 catalyst, our customers will be able for the first time to turn FFA-containing feedstock into FAME (fatty acid methylester) without worrying about yield loss, acids and waste. Whether customers want to use a specific feedstock like different types of animal fat, used cooking oil, trap grease, jatropha, 100 weight percent FFA, or want to achieve a maximum flexibility in feedstock, we have the solution to get the competitive advantage and flexibility to succeed in a world of volatile oil and raw material prices.”
Comparison of Amberlyst BD20 catalyst with sulfuric acid shows identical behavior with low FFA feed stocks, but with sulfuric acid catalysis becomes sluggish, and lower overall yields are achieved. More than 20 oils were tested, and in each case, the catalyst was effective at converting the FFAs to the corresponding esters.

The BayFAME biodiesel esterification process can be easily tied-in between the oil pretreatment and the transesterification units of a conventional biodiesel process. The pretreated oil will be directly fed together with dry methanol into the first esterification reactor stage. After the last reaction stage, the FFA initially contained in the feedstock will be transformed to FAME, and the resulting product stream can be further processed in a conventional transesterification unit to convert the triglycerides into Fatty Acid Methyl Esters.
This polymeric catalyst, offers highly specialized morphology providing excellent accessibility of the supported catalytic sites for demanding molecules such as fatty acids. Using Amberlyst BD20 catalyst, it is possible to design a continuous process able to convert FFAs in low-cost feed stocks for further processing into biodiesel.

This multi-stage concept offers a flexible biodiesel process design, which ensures that feedstocks with any FFA content up to 100 weight percent can be processed with an optimum yield and minimum manufacturing costs.

Will biodiesel produced by this technology be able to meet ASTM and EN 14214 specifications? Most feedstocks produced biodiesel that meet the ASTM specification, although with a wide variety of performance characteristics. Operational parameters such as cloud point, viscosity, density and cold filter plugging point mostly depend on feedstock and process operation. New catalyst as well as new feedstock in biodiesel process technology would not affect the quality parameters that offer to producers improved technology and, finally, to consumers cheaper biodiesel fuel.
Information Surce:
BiobasedNews.com
Photo: http://www.flickr.com/photos/robseattle/ / CC BY-NC 2.0

Standard Fuel Types

Comparison and Properties of Standard Fossil Fuel Types: Diesel, Gasoline, LPG and LNG

Diesel Fuel

Diesel fuel, originally used in the engine was created by engineer Rudolf Diesel in 1892. He invented an engine in which the high internal temperature and pressure conditions of the combustion chamber allowed for the spontaneous ignition of the diesel fuel. Diesel Fuel is a type of middle product of crude oil refining that consists mostly of saturated hydrocarbons ranging from C8 to C20. There are in the presence also: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, sulfur compounds and variety of impurities. The composition of commercial diesel fuel depends with changes in season. Winter diesel type consists of lighter hydrocarbon compounds with artificial additives for freezing prevention as well as summer diesel type consists of higher paraffins. Energy content diesel fuel is average 32-35 MJ/l (26-29MJ/kg), which depends on composition. Diesel fuel supply between 10% and 25% percent more energy than gasoline for any appliance. Quality parameters of commercial diesel fuel are required by ASTM D975 - 09b specification.
Diesel autoignition temperature is between 170C/340F and 230C/445F.
Diesel fuel exhaust emission is a mixture of: carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, water, nitrogen and sulfur oxides, aromatic hydrocarbons, carbon particles (tar). Generally, diesel is a high pollutive fuel type that combustion produces both, greenhouse gases and human harmful gases.

Gasoline Fuel

Gasoline is a type of complex blend of products from crude oil distillation that consists mostly of policyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and hydrocarbons (saturated and unsaturated) ranging from C4 to C12. There are a lot of gasoline types on the fuel market, although all of them are basically, lightest liquid product of crude oil refining. Gasoline is the most often mixture of virgin naphtha, petrochemical byproducts (ethers and olefins) and additives for performance improving. Two basic types of gasoline are distinctive in lead content (most often in tetra ethyl lead form), which is being added into leaded gasoline as a catalyst in purpose to increase octane number. Energy content gasoline fuel is average 31-33 MJ/l (23-24MJ/kg). Gasoline is more volatile than diesel due to constituting and additives. Gasoline autoignition temperature is between 240°C/465F and 280°C/535F. It is higher then diesel, but gasoline can be ignited by spark or flame from a few inches distance due to higher vapour pressure and volatility. Quality parameters of commercial gasoline fuel types is regulated by ASTM D4814 - 09b specification
Same as diesel, gasoline is a high pollutive fuel type that combustion produces both, greenhouse gases and human harmful gases. Gasoline produces less greenhouse gases compared to diesel, but more cancerous and general human harmless gases.

Propane–Butane; LPG

LPG fuel type refer to as petroleum gas that produced altogether with crude oil and liquefied for commercial consumption. It is also lightest product of crude oil distillation. LPG is commonly known as Autogas and GPL, or simply, Propane Butane Fuel.
It fuel type can be composed by pure propane, pure butane or their mixture. Liquefied petroleum gas can be liquid at standard temperature, tough it does evaporate and quickly disappear into atmosphere because of high vapour pressure. Propane-Butane mixture, LPG is suitable to run any engine meant for gasoline use. Propane-Butane Mixture must be carefully handled due to high volatility and flammability. Autoignition temperature of butane is 420C/788F as well as propane is 480C/842F. Any mixture can autoignite at 480C/842F. Energy content of LNG fuel type is about 26MJ/l. It depends of propane butane ratio.
Combustion of LPG mixture fuel type (or each, pure propane or pure butane) doesn't produce human harmful gases. It does produce water and less amount of carbon dioxide then gasoline.

Liquefied Natural Gas; LNG

Liquefied Natural Gas – LNG, is being produces as altogether with crude oil, or separate from gas reservoirs. It is also distillation product of crude oil, although oil refineries does not sell it, rather burn 'in situ' due to expensive liquefying and transport. Liquefied Natural Gas is a pure fuel, predominantly composed of methane. The rest 1% are higher saturated hydrocarbon gases: ethane, propane and butane and their unsaturated variations. Energy content of LNG fuel type is about 24MJ/l.
Liquefied Methane fuel type has extremely high vapor pressure and it is more flammable then any other fuel types. Combustion of LNG fuel type doesn't produce human harmful gases. It does produce water and less amount of carbon dioxide then gasoline. Autoignition temperature of methane 580C/1076F. Liquefied methane is available in high pressure compressed form known as a Compressed Natural Gas – CNG. High pressure enable easer transport due to volume reduction. It must be stored in extra strength vessels and spheric shaped vessels.
LNG fuel type is considered as a clean fuel. Its combustion doesn't produce human harmful gases. It does produce water and less amount of carbon dioxide then diesel, gasoline and LPG.

Fuel Type	Energy Content	Price	Safety	Exhaust Gases
Diesel	High	High	High	High
Gasoline	Medium	High	Medium	High
LPG	Medium	Low	Low	Low
LNG	Low	Low	Low	Low

Related Article: Renewable Fuel Types

Biogas Energy from Waste Biomass

Biogas energy is obtained from variety of biomass and used for home or energy supply of industry. Basically, biogas energy is methane energy, so methane content does determine energy of the biogas. There are several methods for its production. Although biomass feedstock for biogas producing may be diverse composition and properties, each type is usually free of charge or very cheap.
One of the most popular methods of biogas energy obtaining for home usage or small business is anaerobic digestion process where the biogas is a product of the decomposition of waste organic materials in absence of oxygen by anaerobic digestion process. However, biogas obtained by fermentation of variety of biomass such as manure, wastewater suspensions, green waste or municipal waste is the cleanest, although often require external energy consumption for heating or cooling in order to maintain optimal process temperature. There are two distinct temperature ranges most suitable for biogas production. Optimal temperature for biomass decomposing by Mesophilic Bacteria has to be between 35C/ 95F and 40C/105F. Higher temperature between 50C/120F and 60C/140F is more suitable for Thermophilic Bacteria's function, which is more productive process, but require more energy for biomass heating.

Biogas Energy Balance

Biogas produced from anaerobic digestion process from biomass consists of 45%-85% methane and 15%-45% carbon dioxide. Presence of additional components such as ammonia, hydrogen sulphide and nitrogen depends on the process conditions and operation techniques. The energy of both, pure methane is shown in table below:

Unit	MJ/kg	MJ/Nm3	Btu/IMPgal	BTU/US gal	kWh/m3
Methane Energy	55	35.5	152.2	126.7	9.81
Biogas Energy	24.75-46.74	16-30.2	68.5-129.4	57-107.7	4.41-8.34

Biogas energy balance is calculated by equation:

ProducedEnergy=BiogasEnergy–ProcessHeat

Process heat is energy consumption for digester heating and can be calculated by equation:

Q = C(Tprocess – Tatmospheric), where C – specific energy of biomass.

There are plenteous biomass types. Average specific energy of biomass is 10Mj/kg – 15MJ/kg, It gets excellent economy to process in warm climate zones.

Biogas obtained from anaerobic digestion process has similar energy content to landfill gas, which is obtained by municipal waste or solid biomass burning, but much more cleaner due to missing of toxic substances such as chlorine or mercury. There is also no problem with tar and carbon residue disposal and no require expensive gasifiers. Otherwise, landfill methane production has two main advantages: lower production cost and wider range of feedstock. There can be burned plastics and other non-fermentable materials, although it is required to meet established environmental standards.

The main components of biogas produced by anaerobic digestion from biomass, methane and carbon dioxide are odourless. Smell of biogas indicates presence of sulfur compounds, which takes contribution to biogas energy content, but no environment friendly and makes the problems for further uses due to corrosiveness. In contact with oxides hydrogen sulfide tends to form sulphuric acid which can dissolve the metal parts of the furnaces and equipment. It can be prevented by adding iron chloride to the digester inlet stream, or by fluxing the biogas through wood chips impregnated with iron oxide. Carbon dioxide get negative contribution to biogas energy content. It can be removed by flowing up the biogas though water before storage.
Both removing can be done trough biogas upgraders.

Biogas Energy Applications

Biogas can run vehicle engine by both, directly combustion or fuel cell. In order to increase biogas energy density, biogas must be liquefied before using. It costs a lot, which put off consumption of biogas energy as a fuel for engines. Biogas energy from biomass can be used more efficilenty for all applications suitable for natural gas, primary for cooking, heating, electricity generating and industrial steam production. If local gas company agrees, concentrated and refined biogas by "biogas upgrader" can be sold because it is identical to commercial natural gas.
Biogas energy from biomass would be sufficient to produce few hundred billion kilowatt hours. It is repectable, almost free of charge energy. Further, worldwide biogas energy using can reduce few hundred million metric tons of greenhouse gas emissions.

Related Articles:
Biomass Energy Sources and Bioenergy Utilization
Homemade Biogas Plant. How to build own digester and biogas production
Biogas (biomethane) production by Anaerobic Digestion Process

API Gravity - definition, conversion, calculation and table

API Gravity Table

API Gravity is a measure that developed by American Petroleum Institute (API). It does express the specific gravity, density and specific weight of liquid petroleum products. API gravity is a measure inversely related to oil density and is being used for crude oil classification as well as price creating. Crude oil is classified as light, medium or heavy, according to its measured API gravity. Light crude oil has an API gravity higher than 31 °API; medium oil is has an API gravity value between 22.3 °API and 31.1 °API; and heavy oil has an API gravity below 22.3 °API. Gravity is a factor governing the quality of crude oils. However, the gravity of a petroleum product is an uncertain indication of its quality. Correlated with other properties, gravity can be considered to get approximate hydrocarbon composition. There is a simple rule on the oil market, the higher API Gravity the higher price. Oil price is being commanded by light oil.
Technically, API gravity is a relative measure how heavy or light is the crude oil or other petroleum products. If its API gravity is higher than 10, it floats on water; if less than 10, it sinks into water. It means, if oil has an API value less then 10, it is heavies then water and consists of great amount of bitumen fractions. Generally, crude oil is valuable for refining, if has API gravity value between 10 and 45. Oil with over or under limits can be used also, although its refining process gets difficulties and requires the extra treatment. It is almost mission impossible to separate free water and impurities from oil which has API Gravity less then 10. Otherwise, oil with value higher then 45 has high vapour pressure. API Gravity is detailed in ASTM D1298 standard.

API Gravity Calculation and Conversion

API Gravity of oil and petroleum products depends only on density. The higher the density the lower the API gravity. No dependences on other oil parameters such as viscosity, freeze point, etc. Its calculation is done using formula:

• API = (141.5/ρ) – 131.5 (ρ - oil density at 15C; unit g/cm³)


• API = (1181.53/ρ) – 131.5 (ρ – oil density at 60F; unit lb/USgal)

Reverse calculation density from known API Gravity:

• ρ = 141.5/ (API + 131.5) SI units, and ρ = 1181.53/ (API + 131.5) US units

API Gravity is expression in degrees ⁰API, although can be used unit cm³/g.

API Gravity Temperature Correction

API Gravity does not depend on temperature. However, it is derived from density corrected at standard temperature 15C/ 60F. Density correction is doing in accordance with ASTM 1250.

API Gravity Measurement

API Gravity can be directly measured by Hydrometer, which is graduated by units in accordance with ASTM D287, instead its deriving from measured density. The result is the same.

Related Articles:
• Fuel Density: Diesel, Gasoline, LPG, Biodiesel, Crude Oil, Hydrogen


• Density Calculation versus Temperature and Composition

Biomass Energy Sources and Bioenergy Utilization

Biomass energy also known as “Bioenergy” is an energy obtained from a variety of biomass from industrial byproducts, agricultural yields and waste. Biomass energy which can be replenished in a short period, thus using over and over with a endless supply. Unlike fossil based energy sources such as coal, crude oil and gas, biomass energy sources will never run out, if get proper planing, handling and generation. Biomass Energy are considered renewable because they get energy from the sun using photosynthesis provided that all minerals required for growth are returned back to the land. Additional positive effect of bio-energy consumption is environmental impact. However, bio-energy consumption does emit less carbon dioxide and health harmful pollutions then energy obtained from fossils. The terms biomass energy and bio-energy refer to us several available types of biomass feedstocks: cellulosic biomass, germs, municipal waste, used vegetable oil and animal fats, industrial byproducts, agricultural byproducts and animal manure.

Types of Biomass Energy "Bioenergy" Feedstock

Biomass is everywhere. Every year billions tons of biomass is being wasted from industry and agriculture, but it can be transformed in usable energy form. There are worldwide projects those induced biomass energy utilize, weather as direct combustion for heating appliance or, the better, transformation in a variety of usable form such as biofuels.

Energy from Cellulosic Biomass

Cellulosic biomass can be transformed in syngas by directly combustion – gasification, are the great resource of biomass energy. By gasification of uneatable portions of crops such as stoves and wood can be obtained the gas with energy content 8MJ/Nm3 – 20MJ/Nm3. This type of biomass energy source is separated and often wasted from agriculture yields. Cellulose comprises much of the mass of plants and contained in worldwide forests and fields. Syngas obtained from solid biomass is being transformed in fuel for engines and heating appliances by diverse methods. Depending of method, from syngas can be obteined methane, propane and butane gases; methanol, ethanol and butanol alcohols; Fischer-Tropsch diesel; or even it can be washed to pure hydrogen. All these are used as the biofuels. In facts, celullose gasification process and using of obtained biofuels do emit greenhouse gases, but much less then standard coal gasification and standard oil combustion. The carbon dioxide that is released during combustion is equivalent to the carbon dioxide that has taken up by the biomass while it was growing. It close the cycle, which does not increase CO2 amount on the earth.
These years are accelerated scientific efforts in efficiency improving (and decrease costs) of cellulosic biomass enzymatic hydrolysis. Great results have been reached, so process becomes economically viable. Cellulose breakdown to simple sugars will enable cheap fermentation as well as alcohol fuel as a biomass energy source production. Many companies already run the operations.
The biofuels obtained from cellulose are successfully blended within standard fuels or replace them.

Energy from Crops

Variety of biomass feedstocks such as corn, sugarcane, potato, measles are also type of biomasss energy resource that can be used for alcohol fuel production. Although there are many debates weather eatable crops ought to be eaten or combusted for energy production, these are significant biomass energy sources. Although same energy sources are obtained, fermentation of the crops is the easer the cheaper process then treatment of cellulose, but feedstock is not always available.

Biomass Energy from Used Vegetable Oil

Wasted Vegetable Oil is a great feedstock for biodiesel production as a biomass energy source. Worldwide population consumed about 126 million metric tones (about 277 billion Pounds). Basically, it is a type of renewable energy resource. Biodiesel from that is high quality and can be used for blending within standard diesel, so many engines can use pure biodiesel to run. Wasted vegetable oil can be used also as a heating fuel with minimal modification of standard furnaces and boilers regarding to preheating. Although this appliance is not energy effective as a oil and gas burning and is not green as processed WVO in biodiesel, there no require additional costs.

Biomass Energy from Municipal Waste and Animal Manure

Municipal waste and animal manure can be easy transformed in biogas by anaerobic digestion process. Wasted pulp from food industry, slurry and any type of organic waste are great resources for biomass energy producing also. Final product – biogas is in basic methane, same as natural fossil gas. It can used local gas net for distribution without technical difficulties and consequences.
There are some estimation that worldwide population makes about 4.5 billion tons of waste per year. It means that biogas generating as a biomass energy makes double benefits: getting cheap energy and cleaning the landfills.

Biomass Energy from Industrial Byproducts

The new studies have discovered the methods for transformation cellulosic biomass, even wasted pulp from paper and furniture industry into dimethyl ether fuel. It is done by few steps: industrial byproducts get gasification; then synas is being converted in methanol finaly dehydrated to dimethyl ether. Dimethyl ether fuel is an excellent biomass energy sources and it has better characteristics for engines meant for diesel use then each, standard diesel or biodiesel.

Viscosity Measurement by Capillary Viscometer

A viscometer is an instrument used for viscosity measurement of the fluids, each liquid or gaseous. There are many types, constructions and measurement methods used for a variety of fluids viscosity measurement. For laboratory and field viscosity measurement of liquids, capillary viscometers come with different mounting options. Depending of purpose and conditions of viscosity measurement, they can be portable or fixed, automatic or manual handled. Glass Capillary Viscometers have to meet standards in order to be valid used in accordance with ISO 17025. Viscosity measurement methods as well as requirements for viscometers are fully described in ISO 3104, ISO 3105, ASTM D 445, ASTM D 446 and IP 71.
Glass Capillary Viscometers are most widely used viscometers due to high accuracy and relatively low price. These viscometers are constructed from low-expansion borosilicate glass that provide constant capillary diameter on different temperature condition in selected gages. Glass Capillary Viscometer has “U” shape construction.

Measurement Principle

Viscosity measurement is being done by time recording of liquid flow down from bulb on the top of one arm to bulb on the bottom of another arm trough capillary. The marks are drawn above and below outlet bulb. The time recorded for the level of the liquid to pass between an above and a below mark is proportional to the kinematic viscosity of liquid. Glass Capillary Viscometers are provided with a capillary constant for single viscometer that used as a conversion factor. A constant of capillary viscometer are obtained experimental, by calibration. By multiplying the recorded time by capillary constant of the viscometer, results the kinematic viscosity. Usually, the result is average of three repeated measurements under same conditions.
Capillary constant of viscometer is related to capillary diameter. Viscometer with higher constant is used for higher viscous fluids, for example, motor lubricants.
No single capillary viscometer is ideally suited for kinematic viscosity measurement of all liquids. Therefore, lab equipment producers are providing a variety of types.

Capillary Viscometer Types

There are commercially produced many types of Glass Capillary Viscometer. The widest used are:

• Ostwald Viscometer for transparent liquids viscosity measurement such as diesel

• Ostwald Viscometer for opaque viscosity measurement such as crude oil

• Ubbelohde Viscometer and other suspended level viscometers, which are recommended for higher viscosity cellulosic polymer solutions. The Ubbelohde device has a third arm attached to the end of the capillary for pressure regulation

Continuous capillary viscometers are adopted to measure the viscosity of fluids in industrial operations also. Although they are not the best solution for process viscosity measurement, variety of add ons get wide applicability in industry. Usually, pressure transducers are built up to transmit the viscosity. Capillary Viscometers with pressure transducers come in two types:

• Differential pressure type, which measure viscosity by pressure drop inside the capillary. Transducers are connected to both arms

• Back-pressure type, which measures only inlet pressure to a capillary tube. Another arm discharges to atmosphere or to a pressured process line

Viscosity measurement principles are same or very similar for each other type of capillary viscometer. Different types and sizes are created due to different liquid properties. Accuracy of viscosity measurement in processes by glass capillary viscometer has been found successful at viscosities up to 1,500 Pas and at temperatures up to 500°C (about 930°F).

Related Article:

• Kinematic Viscosity of Diesel and Biodiesel Fuel Blends

Does HHO Generator really work?

There are a lot videos and manuals on the web, where we can learn how HHO generators contribute to vehicle power. Weather as somebody intends to purchase professional HHO generator or to make one at home, he has to investigate for all advantages and disadvantages.
Does HHO Generator work on vehicle? I believe it works. Does it efficiently work? I’m not sure. However, HHO generator kit installed on vehicles doesn’t meet basic energy balance. Einstein said once: If the practice doesn’t meet the theory, change the practice. This is the top energy quote over the years, but our time people claim: yes, it efficiently works !

How does HHO generator work?

The HHO generators are the devices those are used in both the automotive and welding industries. The technology is based on process of electrolysis of water to convert it to its gaseous state H-H-O (hydrogen-hydrogen-oxygen). This is low efficient process with about 35% energy wasting. On other hand, HHO gas (hydroxy or oxyhydrogen) is a powerful welding gas, which is wide used in the industry. Oxyhydrogen gas produced from HHO generators can improve combustion into engines also. The hydrogen and oxygen gas mixture 2:1 helps the gasoline or diesel fuel burn more cleanly inside the cylinders that contribute to fewer emissions and increased gas mileage. It is doing more by gasoline/ diesel oxygenation then hydrogen combustion. Hydrogen in gaseous state has lower energy content then each gasoline or diesel, thus can’t improve power of the vehicle. Possible improvement can be high temperature of hydrogen combustion chemical reaction between gaseous hydrogen and compounds of standard fuel that improve combustion characteristics.
I don’t believe, although it may work somehow …

Water Electrolysis inside HHO Generator - Hydrogen on Demand System

HHO (hydrogen) Generator is not Fuel Cell that is in using to run hybrid cars as an electrochemical conversion device. Fuel Cell produces electricity from fuel (on the anode side) and an oxidant (on the cathode side), which react in the presence of an electrolyte.
HHO Generator Hydrogen is based on Demand System i.e. water electrolysis as well as hydrogen production during the driving. An energy source for water electrolysis is used 12V electric current produced by the alternator. Water is being decomposed into oxygen and hydrogen due when electricity is being passed through. An electrical source is connected to two electrodes, which are placed in the water. Hydrogen will be separated at the cathode – negatively charged electrode and oxygen will appear at the anode – the positively charged side. It is the basic of technology. There are many improvements, such as electro electrocatalysts adding or pressure oscillating to regulate boiling point of water. These depend of HHO Generator type and construction.

Energy and Material Balance of a HHO gas generator

In order to effective, the HHO generators have to produce enough hydrogen to replace 2% - 5% of the flow. Energy material balance and show that is very complicate or even not possible.

H2O = H2 + ½ O2 – 237 kJ/mole

Decomposition of a water molecule into gaseous hydrogen and oxygen require input 237 kJ/mole. Standard engines need 0.2kg – 0.5kg of gaseous hydrogen per hour. Take in consider that 1 mole weight of a hydrogen molecule mole is slightly more then 2g, HHO generator needs 47.4MJ - 59.3MJ in order to produce enough amount of hydrogen. Energy will not be taken from ‘nothing’. It must be provided from gasoline combustion. Energy content of gasoline is about 31 MJ/lit (depend of blend). It means that HHO generator consume about 1.5lit - 1.9lit gasoline an hour. Water electrolysis efficiency can be maximum 67% which increase, which additionally increase HHO generator consumption to 1.85 lit – 2.3 lit an hour. If we convert it in imperial unit: extra consumption in average 0.5 – 0.6 gallon per hour. If we take that average consumption is about 2 -2.5 gal/ hour (60 miles driving) HHO generator would finally increase fuel economy by 20 - 25%. Consuming more fuel to have the same mileage is not an increase in efficiency. All the facts are assuming prevention water boiling during electrolyses.
Another task is electric system. For a 12 Volt electrical system, this requires about 420 Amps. The wire need to be as thick as building armature to be able to conduct this electricity. Standard wires in vehicle’s electric systems are 5 – 10 thinner. The HHO Generator is an excellent as a device for production welding gas.

However, it may works efficiently

Despite these facts, many people claim they got increased fuel economy and power of their own car. However, the market of HHO Generator is developing more then ever and thousands devices have been sold every year. There are developed many HHO Generator for car types and constructions. This Hydrogen on Demand System may not be a scam, due to producers warranty and money back system. Don't be too quick to make your mind up advantage or disadvantage about the issue. Convince yourself first.

Kinematic Viscosity of Diesel and Biodiesel Fuel Blends

Kinematic viscosity is an important parameter of diesel, biodiesel. It reflects flow ability and lubricity of diesel–biodiesel ‘B’ blends.

Viscosity is very complex property of fluids, especially fluid mixtures such as hydrocarbon fuels, thus no be explained in a few sentences. Avoiding definition and analysis of Newton’s and non-Newton’s fluids, this blog post is attended on viscosity influences related to diesel and biodiesel fuel.Term Viscosity refers to two quantities: Kinematic Viscosity and Dynamic (Absolute) Viscosity (and many subs of them). Basically, those are same, but different in practical analysis of fuel quality. Kinematic viscosity is the measure of fluids’ resistance to flow and shear under the forces of gravity. It is value of dynamic viscosity divided by density. Diesel composed by paraffin as well as biodiesel by methyl esters. It means that each diesel, fossil or bio is composed by large hydrocarbon molecules. As larger molecules as flow resistance gets grater. It means that kinematic viscosity becomes higher with molecule size increasing. It often makes a mass that viscosity depends on density. Quantities are related, but not depended. For example, diesel has about 4 times higher kinematic viscosity then water, although water has higher density. Also, diesel has higher viscosity and higher density then gasoline. No rules. Both, Kinematic and Dynamic Viscosity strongly depends on temperature. Increasing the temperature decreases the viscosity. Viscosity dependence on temperature is defined and known for pure substances, but diesels are most mixture of varying of compounds. No rules, equations and linear dependences for calculations. It is being determined by laboratory measurement for particular fuel sample.
Diesel and Biodiesel kinematic viscosity limits below are in accordance with ISO international standardized specifications. It may slightly vary in national standards.

Kinematic viscosity of Diesel

Diesel is mainly composed by paraffines and aromatic hydrocarbons. Composition creates kinematic viscosity 2.5 – 4.0 mm2/ s at 40°C. A value lower the minimum limit probably means that diesel has bed lubricity characteristics. Value higher the maximum probably means that diesel will have bad flow characteristics at lower temperatures, and high pure point. It may make the problems in cold climate areas.

Kinematic viscosity of Biodiesel

Biodiesel is mainly composed by methyl and/ or ethyl esters. Esters create higher biodiesel kinematic viscosity then fossil diesel. There are differences in national specification related to biodiesel density. For example, ASTM is more flexible in this case. They specified 1.9 - 6.0 mm2/s while European EN 14214 specified 3.5 - 5.0 mm2/s. Both limits are set at 40°C. Obviously, biodiesel blends B10, B20, B50 and B100 have kinematic viscosity 2 – 6 mm2/s at 40°C. It depend on amount of diesel and biodiesel particularly and their compositions.

Kinematic Viscosity Measurement

Kinematic viscosity measurement has to conform to the requirements in each: ASTM D445, D446, D7279, IP 71 or ISO 3104, 3105. Kinematic viscosity of diesel and biodiesel can be measured by glass capillary tubes. All organizations for standardization set standard measurement temperature 40°C. It requires laboratory water bath able to maintain constant temperature. Every temperature oscillating will cause error in recorded values. By multiplying the time taken by the factor of the viscometer, the viscosity value is obtained. It is manual kinematic viscosity measurement. The price of measurement set is about US$1000.

Kinematic Viscosity can be measured by automatic viscometers in purpose to obtain more accurate results. The principle is same, thought temperature, time record and all measurement preparation is done and controlled by software. The measurement operation needs not human monitoring. Average price of automatic viscometer device is about US$30.000.

Related Articles: Fuel Density: Diesel, Gasoline, LPG, Biodiesel, Crude Oil, Hydrogen

Water splitting into hydrogen and oxygen

Hydrogen fuel is probably most controversial alternative fuel. It is powerful and clean, but difficult in handling and storage. Although hydrogen is most abundant chemical element that can be produced everywhere, transformation in energy usable form is not economic viable. Water can be a great resource for production of combustible hydrogen, but electrolysis and other current technologies must be improved or changed by more efficient methods. Efficient mechanism of water splitting into hydrogen and oxygen would provide energy needs; minimize human contribution to global warming. There are plenteous scientific efforts to produce hydrogen fuel from water.

Water Decomposing by Radio Waves – Burning Salt Water

Scientists long have thought that water couldn't be burned. John Kanzius discovered water molecule decomposing and splitting into oxygen and hydrogen. He performed salt water burning, so spawned scientific interest in using the water as clean fuel. There are no electrodes. He developed radio frequency generator as a novel cancer treatment. Research was focused on cancer cells eliminating supposedly looking for resonant frequencies of the cells themselves, so hydrogen ignition and burning was accidentally due to water splitting into oxygen and hydrogen.
He put sea water in a test tube; heat from burning hydrogen grew hot enough to melt the test tube, producing an unexpected spark. Tests on different concentrations of sodium chlorate - water solutions produced various temperatures and flame colors. Kanzius proposed that the flame is produced by burning of hydrogen and oxygen, obtained from water molecule splitting by radio waves. Kanzius called it reunification process and said that "In this case we weren't looking for energy, we were looking for something that might do desalinization. The more we tried desalinization, the more heat we produced, until we got fire". Unfortunately, he passed away Feb. 19, 2009. No additional information about the project on John Kanzius’s official website and PesWiki webpage since that time.

Water Splitting by Smart Metal Complex

Researchers at the Weizmann Institute, Organic Chemistry Department have developed a new way of splitting water molecules that can separate oxygen from water and bind the atoms in a different molecule. Weizmann team has three important steps in water molecule splitting helped by ‘smart metal complex’. Basic element of that metal complex is ruthenium. The first step is water splitting into hydrogen and hydroxyl group. When water is mixed with this complex, covalent bond between the hydrogen and oxygen atoms breaks. Hydrogen atom binds with organic part of the complex, the hydroxyl group bind to its metal center. The second stage is known as heat stage. Here the water solution is heated up to boiling. This releases the hydrogen gas from the complex. Here comes our clean and green source of fuel. Another OH group is added to the metal center. Project leader, Professor Milstein explained third stage, “When we exposed this third complex to light at room temperature, not only was oxygen gas produced, but the metal complex also reverted back to its original state, which could be recycled for use in further reactions.” The team has discovered that during the third stage, light provides the energy for the two OH groups to get together to form hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂). This hydrogen peroxide quickly breaks up into oxygen and water. Another interesting thing the team has spotted is that the bond between the two oxygen atoms is generated within a single molecule. This bond formation doesn’t occur between oxygen atoms located on separate molecules, but it comes from a single metal center.
The greatest achievement of Milstein’s team has been the development of a mechanism for the formation of hydrogen and oxygen from water, without the need for sacrificial chemical agents. It has been achieved by using individual steps and utilizing light. For their next project, they intend to combine these stages to create a proficient catalytic system.

Water Splitting by Aluminium Clusters

Researchers at Pennsylvania State University and Virginia Commonwealth University have developed the process of hydrogen production by exposing clusters of aluminum atoms to water. The process is based on the presence of Lewis acids and Lewis bases in those atoms. In the presence of the aluminum, the water acts as a Lewis base, interacting with the Lewis acids in the aluminum cluster. Lewis bases are chemical compounds, or molecules, that can donate a pair of electrons to Lewis acids, compounds, or molecules with two free slots in their highest occupied molecular orbital. Thus, water can donate hydroxyl groups to aluminum cluster acting as base. Then, hydrogen atoms become free, which join becoming hydrogen gas.
Shiv Khanna, Professor of Physics, explained that "Traditional techniques for splitting water to produce hydrogen generally require a lot of energy at the time the hydrogen is generated. But our method allows us to produce hydrogen without supplying heat, connecting to a battery, or adding electricity. Once the aluminum clusters are synthesized, they can generate hydrogen on demand without the need to store it."
The team discovered that the aluminum clusters react differently when exposed to water, depending on the sizes of the clusters and their unique geometric structures.

There are many other researches of hydrogen fuel production from other sources. It seems that scientific efforts are accelerated. We shall have huge benefits, if they reach the goal – commercial production of hydrogen fuel.

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